Vaginal cancer

Vaginal cancer is a rare cancer that occurs in the vagina, the muscular tube that connects the uterus with outer genitals. Vaginal cancer most commonly develops in the cells that line the surface of the vagina. Diagnosis of vaginal cancer  at its early stage has the best chance for a cure. Vaginal cancer that spreads beyond the vagina is much more difficult to treat.

Symptoms

At the early stage vaginal cancer may not cause any signs and symptoms. As it progresses, signs and symptoms show up such as -

• Unusual vaginal bleeding - after intercourse or after menopause
• Watery vaginal discharge
• A lump or mass in the vagina
• Painful urination
• Frequent urination
• Constipation
• Pelvic pain

Types

Vaginal cancer has been classified into various types based on the site where the cancer begins.

• Vaginal squamous cell carcinoma - which begins in the thin, flat cells (squamous cells) that line the surface of the vagina, and is the most common type.
• Vaginal adenocarcinoma -  which begins in the glandular cells on the surface of the vagina.
• Vaginal melanoma - which develops in the pigment-producing cells (melanocytes) of the vagina.
• Vaginal sarcoma - which develops in  the connective tissue cells or muscles cells in the walls of the vagina.

Causes & Risk factors

It's not clear what causes vaginal cancer. In general, cancer begins when healthy cells acquire a genetic mutation that turns normal cells into abnormal cells.

Risk factors include:

• Increasing age
• Atypical cells in the vagina called vaginal intraepithelial neoplasia
• Exposure to miscarriage prevention drug
• Multiple sexual partners
• Early age at first intercourse
• Smoking
• HIV infection

Complications

Vaginal cancer may spread (metastasize) to distant areas of one’s body, such as your lungs, liver and bones.

Diagnosis

Vaginal cancer is sometimes found during a routine pelvic exam before signs and symptoms become evident. The other investigations include:

• Imaging tests like CT Scan, MRI, PET
• Inspecting the vagina with a magnifying instrument
• Removing a sample of vaginal tissue for testing

Treatment

The  treatment options for vaginal cancer depend on several factors, including the type of vaginal cancer and its stage. In general  vaginal cancer typically includes surgery and radiation.

Surgery

Types of surgery that may be used to treat vaginal cancer include:

• Removal of small tumors or lesions
• Removal of the vagina (vaginectomy)
• Removal of the majority of the pelvic organs (pelvic exenteration)

If the patient’s vagina is completely removed, a surgery to construct a new vagina.is required.

Radiation therapy

Radiation can be delivered two ways:

• External radiation
• Internal radiation

Other options

In some cases Chemotherapy is also required

Prevention

• Annual pelvic exam
• HPV vaccine
• Practicing safe sex
• No smoking

Tonsil cancer

Tonsil cancer is an abnormal growth of cells that forms in a tonsil. Tonsils are two oval-shaped pads in the back of the mouth which are part of the body's germ-fighting immune system. Tonsil cancer can cause difficulty swallowing and a sensation that something is caught in your throat. Tonsil cancer is often diagnosed late,  when cancer has spread to adjacent areas, such as the lymph nodes in the neck.

Treatments for tonsil cancer include surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy.

Symptoms

• Difficulty swallowing
• A sensation that something is caught in the back of your throat
• Swelling and pain in the neck
• Earache
• Jaw stiffness

Causes

It's not clear what causes tonsil cancer, but it is found that human papilloma virus (HPV) is increasingly playing a role. This common sexually transmitted infection is detected in most tonsil cancer cases. Tonsil cancer caused by HPV tends to occur at a younger age and is more likely to respond well to available treatments.

Risk factors

The following factors may increase the risk of tonsil cancer:

• Using tobacco
• Drinking alcohol
• Being infected with human papillomavirus (HPV)

Prevention

• No tobacco use
•  Limited alcohol drinking
•  Regular dental care
•  HPV vaccine

Diagnosis

Tests and procedures used to diagnose tonsil cancer include:

• Physical examination of throat and neck
•  Removing a tissue sample for testing
•  Imaging tests – CT Scan, MRI, PET

Treatment

Tonsil cancer treatments depend on the size, stage and HPV status of the cancer, as well as one’s overall health. Tonsil cancer treatment options  include surgery, radiation therapy, or a combination of chemotherapy and radiation therapy.

Surgery

The goal of surgery for tonsil cancer is to remove as much of the cancer cells as possible. Surgery can be used to treat all stages of tonsil cancer.

Radiation therapy

Radiation therapy might be used alone to treat early stage cancers that haven't grown beyond the tonsil. Sometimes radiation therapy is used after surgery if the cancer can't be removed completely or if there's a risk that the cancer may have spread to the lymph nodes. Radiation can also be combined with chemotherapy as an initial treatment or as an additional treatment after surgery.

Chemotherapy

For tonsil cancer, chemotherapy is usually combined with radiation therapy. It can also be used alone to slow the growth of tonsil cancer that has recurred or has spread to other areas of the body.

Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation specialists in speech therapy, swallowing therapy, dietetics, physical therapy and occupational therapy help with rehabilitation that may be necessary after surgery or radiation therapy.

Throat cancer develops in one’s throat (pharynx) or voice box (larynx). It can affect the mouth, sinuses, nose or throat. Symptoms include a sore or lump that doesn't heal, a persistent sore throat, trouble swallowing and changes in the voice. Treatments include surgery, radiation and chemotherapy.

Types of Throat Cancer  
Specific terms are used to differentiate the part of the throat where cancer originated. These include -

• Nasopharyngeal cancer begins in the part of the throat just behind the nose.
• Oropharyngeal cancer begins in the oropharynx — the area just behind the mouth that includes tonsils.
• Hypopharyngeal cancer (Laryngopharyngeal cancer) begins in the lower part of the throat, just above the esophagus and windpipe.
• Glottic cancer begins in the vocal cords.
• Supraglottic cancer begins in the upper portion of the voice box 
• Subglottic cancer begins in the lower portion of the voice box, below the vocal cords.

Symptoms

• Cough
• Changes in one's voice, such as hoarseness or not speaking clearly
• Trouble swallowing
• Pain in the ears 
• A lump or sore 
• Sore throat
• Weight loss

Causes and risk factors
It's not clear what causes the mutation of cells that develops into throat cancer. But some factors may increase the risk which include:

• Smoking and chewing tobacco
• Excessive alcohol intake
• Viral infections, including human papillomavirus (HPV) and Epstein-Barr virus
• Unhealthy diet  
• Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
• Exposure to toxic substances at work

Diagnosis
The following diagnostic procedures are advised:

• Using a scope to get a closer look at  the throat. Like laryngoscope to examin one’s voice box. 
• Removing a tissue sample for testing. 
• Test to detect HPV 
• Imaging tests  - CT Scan, MRI and PET CT 

Treatment
The  treatment options are based on factors lke location and stage of one’s throat cancer, the type of cells involved, whether the cells show signs of HPV infection.
However, the treatment may include the following – Surgery, Radiation therapy. Chemotherapy, Targeted Therapy, Immuno therapy and Rehabilitation regime.
 

Soft palate cancer develops in the cells of the soft palate. Soft palate is located on the upper portion of the back of the mouth, behind the teeth. Soft palate cancer is regarded as a kind of throat cancer. It is usually treated with a combination of surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy.

Symptoms

• Difficulty in swallowing
• Speaking difficulty
• Bleeding
• Bad breath
• Pain in the mouth
• Prolonged sores in the mouth
• Loose teeth
• Pain in swallowing
• Loss of Weight
• Ear pain
• Painful swelling in the neck
• Long standing white patches in the mouth

Causes and Risk Factors

Soft palate cancer forms when a genetic mutation turns normal, healthy cells into abnormal cells. Some of the risk factors include –

• Smoking and tobacco use
• Excessive alcohol drinking
• Getting infected with human papillomavirus (HPV)
• Medications that suppress the immune system

Diagnosis

• Physical checking of the patient’s soft palate by the doctor. 
• Removing a tissue sample for testing. 
• Imaging tests like CT Scan, MRI and PET Scan

Treatment

The following treatment options are available:

Surgery,  reconstructive surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, rehabilitative services like speech therapy, palliative care.

Skin cancer is developed by the abnormal and rapid growth of skin cells. It is a common type of cancer that primarily occurs on skin that is exposed to the sunlight. But it can occur on skin of other body parts also that remain covered and is rarely getexposed to sun.

Types of Skin Cancer
Skin cancer is of various types. The most common ones include: 

• Basal Cell Carcinoma 
• Squamous Cell Carcinoma
• Melanoma 

There are few other less common types of skin cancers also that are: 

• Kaposi Sarcoma 
• Merkel Cell Carcinoma 
• Sebaceous Gland Carcinoma 

Symptoms
Basal Cell Carcinoma usually appears on parts exposed to sun with symptoms that includes: 

• A flat, brown or sometimes flesh colored scar-like lesion
• A waxy or pearly bump 
• A crusty surface sore that bleeds and comes back even after it heals. 

Squamous Cell Carcinoma usually ha the following signs: 

• A firm, red nodule may develop on a body part that is exposed to sunlight. 
• A flat lesion with a scaly, crusted surface

Signs of Melanoma includes:

• A large brownish patch with darker speckles
• A mole that changes color, grows bigger or bleeds
• Develops a small lesion that usually has irregular border or portions that may take different colors like red, pink, white, blue or blue-black. 
• Sometimes a painful lesion may develop that itches or burns
• Dark lesions may appear on palms, soles, fingertips or toes. 
• Ark lesions may also develop on mucous membranes lining of mouth, nose, vagina or anus.

Causes
Skin cancer develops when mutations occur in the DNA of skin cells. Uncontrolled growth of cancerous skin cells forms a scar or lump. People who spend many hours under direct sunlight or get exposed to certain substances like arsenic may have a greater chance of developing skin cancer. Fair skinned people reportedly have become sufferer of skin cancer than people with darker skin color. Exposure to radiation, family history and existence of many moles in the body are also identified as the possible causes that lends to develop skin cancer. 

Diagnosis 
Skin cancer is diagnosed by conducting a skin biopsy. 

Treatment 
Treatment of skin cancer may vary depending on the size, type and the depth of the disease. 
Here are the types of treatment that is usually used to treat a skin cancer:

• Freezing 
• Excisional Surgery 
• Mohs Surgery 
• Curettage and Electrodesiccation or cryotherapy 
• Radiation Therapy 
• Chemo Therapy 
• Photo dynamic Therapy 
• Biological Therapy 

Sickle cell anemia is a hereditary disease in which the shape of the red blood cells get chanced. Round and flexible red blood cells carry oxygen in human body that easily pass through the blood vessels. But once sickle cell anemia sets in, it changes the shapes of the red blood cells into sickle like shapes. At the same time the red blood cells become sticky also. This condition hampers blood flow and creates trouble.

Symptoms

The common symptoms of Sickle cell anemia includes:

• Anemia
• Periodic episodes of pain
• Swelling of hands and feet
• Recurring infections
• Delayed growth and puberty in children
• Vision problems

Cause

Family history is the only cause that develops this disease. A child will have this disease if both the parents passes the sickle cell gene to the child. If only one sickle cell gene is passed to the child by any one parent then the child will become the carrier of this disease but will not get affected.

Diagnosis

Sickle cell anemia is determined through blood tests. For adults, blood is collected from vain but in case of babies and children blood is collected from finger of heel. The confirmatory blood test for this disease is conducted in case of new born babies also if the parents are carrying the gene.   

Treatment

Different types of medications are used to treat Sickle cell anemia. The drugs help reducing pain and crisis and improves blood flow. Some of these drugs also lower down the need of blood transfusions that increases chance of developing side infections.

Osteosarcoma is a type of bone cancer that starts in the cells that form bones. Osteosarcoma is common in the long bones  like that of legs or arms, but it can develop  in any bone. Rarely it occurs in soft tissue outside the bone. Osteosarcoma is often found in teenagers and young adults, but it can also affect other age groups too.
Treatment usually involves chemotherapy, surgery and, sometimes, radiation therapy. 

Symptoms

• Swelling near a bone
• Pain in the bone or joint 
• Bone breaks easily for no major reason

Causes and Risk Factors
It's not clear what causes osteosarcoma. Doctors know this cancer forms when something goes wrong in one of the cells that are responsible for making new bone. Some risk factors are the following:

• Previous treatment with radiation therapy
• Some bone disorders like Paget's disease of bone and fibrous dysplasia
• Certain inherited or genetic conditions like hereditary retinoblastoma, Bloom syndrome, Li-Fraumeni syndrome, Rothmund-Thomson syndrome to name a few.

Diagnosis
Besides physical examination the diagnosis is based on the following:
I)    Imaging tests such as – X-ray, CT Scan,  MRI, PET, Bone scan
II)    Biopsy procedures include - Needle biopsy or Surgical biopsy

Treatment
Options to treat Osteosarcoma is Surgery, Chemotherapy and Radiation therapy.

Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma

The condition occurs when the body produces too many abnormal lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell.

Symptoms include swollen lymph nodes, fever, stomach ache, night sweats, weight loss, chest pain and loss of appetite.

Treatments may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, stem-cell transplant or medication.

Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma is a type of cancer that begins in your lymphatic system, which is part of the body's germ-fighting immune system. In non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, white blood cells called lymphocytes grow abnormally and can form growths (tumors) throughout the body.

Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma is a general category of lymphoma. There are many subtypes that fall in this category. Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and follicular lymphoma are among the most common subtypes. The other general category of lymphoma is Hodgkin's lymphoma.

Advances in diagnosis and treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma have helped improve the prognosis for people with this disease.

Symptoms

• Swollen lymph nodes in your neck, armpits or groin
• Abdominal pain or swelling
• Chest pain, coughing or trouble breathing
• Persistent fatigue
• Fever
• Night sweats
• Unexplained weight loss

Causes

In most cases the cause of developing  non-Hodgkin's lymphoma is not known. It begins when one’s body produces too many abnormal lymphocytes, which are a type of white blood cell. The excess of lymphocytes in the lymph nodes cause them to swell.

Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma most often begins in the:

• B cells. B cells are a type of lymphocyte that fights infection by producing antibodies to neutralize foreign invaders. Most non-Hodgkin's lymphoma arises from B cells. Subtypes of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma that involve B cells include diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, follicular lymphoma, mantle cell lymphoma and Burkitt lymphoma.
• T cells. T cells are a type of lymphocyte that  kill foreign invaders directly. Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma occurs much less often in T cells. Subtypes of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma that involve T cells include peripheral T-cell lymphoma and cutaneous T-cell lymphoma.

The patient’s treatment options depend on whether one’s non-Hodgkin's lymphoma arises from B cells or T cells.

Where non-Hodgkin's lymphoma occurs

Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma generally involves the presence of cancerous lymphocytes in the lymph nodes. But the disease can also spread to other parts of one’s lymphatic system. These include the lymphatic vessels, tonsils, adenoids, spleen, thymus and bone marrow.

Risk Factors

The following factors may increase the risk of getting non-Hodgkin's lymphoma -

• Medications that suppress the immune system
• Infection with certain viruses and bacteria. 
•  Exosure to certain Chemicals
• Older age

Diagnosis

• Physical examination
• Blood and urine tests
• Imaging tests like CT Scan, MRI, PET CT
• Lymph node biopsy test
• Bone marrow test
• Lumber puncture(Spinal Tap)

Other investigations may be ordered by the Oncologist to determine the sub type.

Treatment

There are several treatment options for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. It will depend on the  types of cells involved or its aggressiveness.

If the patient’s lymphoma appears to be slow growing (indolent) and doesn't cause any and symptom, no treatment might be required right away. Instead, regular checkups to monitor the patient’s condition may be recommended.

If the disease is aggressive or causes signs and symptoms the treatment options may include:

• Chemotherapy
• Radiation therapy
• Targeted drug therapy
• Engineering immune cells to fight lymphoma
• Bone Marrow Transplant
• Immunotherapy

Uterine Cancer

Uterine cancer is the most common cancer occurring within a woman’s reproductive system. Most uterine cancer begins in the layer of cells that form the lining (endometrium) of the uterus. In uterine cancer healthy cells in the uterus change and grow out of control, forming a mass called a tumor. A tumor can be cancerous or benign. A cancerous tumor is malignant, which can spread to other parts of the body.

Risk factors include being overweight and starting periods at an early age. Symptoms of this cancer include vaginal bleeding after menopause and bleeding between periods.

The main treatment is surgical removal of uterus. It may have to be followed by chemotherapy or radiation.

Types of Uterine Cancer

There are two major types of uterine cancer:

• Adenocarcinoma - This type include 80% of uterine cancers. It develops from cells in the endometrium. This cancer is commonly called endometrial cancer.
• Sarcoma – This type of uterine cancer develops in the supporting tissues of the uterine glands or in the myometrium, which is the uterine muscle. Sarcoma accounts for about 2% to 4% of uterine cancers.

Causes

• Being postmenopausal, or reaching menopause (after age 55)
• A thickened wall lining (endometrial hyperplasia)
• Never having children.
• Starting periods early (before age 12)
• Having high blood pressure or diabetes.
• Being overweight or obese.
• Family history of ovarian, uterine, or bowel cancer.

Symptoms

The most common symptom of uterine cancer is unusual vaginal bleeding,  particularly any bleeding after menopause. Other common symptoms include:

• Heavier than usual periods or a change in your periods
• Vaginal bleeding between periods
• Periods that continue without a break.

Less common symptoms include:

• A watery discharge from vagina
• Unexplained weight loss
• Difficulty urinating or a change in bowel habit
• Pain in the pelvic region

Diagnosis

Pelvic examination

Pap test

Endometrial Biopsy

Transvaginal ultrasound

Imaging tests like CT Scan, MRI

Dilation and curettage

Molecular testing of Tumor

Treatment

Surgery – such as hysterectomy or Lymph node removal

Chemotherapy

Hormone therapy

Radiation therapy

Immuno therapy

Targetted therapy

Prevention

Although there is no proven way to completely prevent uterine cancer, one may be able to lower the risk. These include:

• Taking birth control pills
• Using a progestin-secreting intrauterine device (IUD), which is a form of birth control.
• Considering the risk of uterine cancer before starting HRT(Hormone Replacement Therapy). Using a combination of estrogen and progesterone for HRT may lower  the risk.
• Maintaining a healthy weight
• Regularly controlling blood sugar level

Pancreatic cancer forms in the cells of the pancreas. It begins in the tissues of the pancreas — an organ in the abdomen that lies behind the lower part the stomach. Pancreas releases enzymes that aid digestion and produces hormones that help manage one’s blood sugar.

Usually this type of cancer is quite silent in the beginning and gets detected late. But it spreads rapidly. Treatment may include surgically removing the pancreas, radiation and chemotherapy.

Symptoms

Signs and symptoms of pancreatic cancer often don't occur until the disease is advanced.  The symptoms include -

• Abdominal pain
• Loss of appetite
•  Weight loss
• Yellowing of  skin and eyes (jaundice)
• Light-colored stools
• Dark urine
• Itchy skin
• New diagnosis of diabetes or existing diabetes shoots up
• Blood clots
• Weakness

Causes & Risk Factors

It's not clear what causes pancreatic cancer. There are some factors that may increase the risk of Pancreatic Cancer. These risk factors include –

• Smoking and tobacco chewing
• Diabetes
• Chronic inflammation of the pancreas (pancreatitis)
• Inherited gene mutation. 
• Family history of pancreatic cancer
• Obesity
• Older age

Diagnosis

• Imaging tests like CT scan, MRI and PET Scan
• Biopsy
• Endoscopic Ultra Sound
• Certain blood tests

Treatment

Treatment for Pancreatic Cancer include surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy.